Pilgrimage

In one’s spiritual pilgrimage the realization of temporal finiteness births a longing for personal communion with God.

O my God, sweetness unspeakable, turn into bitterness all my fleshly consolation, which draweth me away from the love of eternal things, and wickedly allureth toward itself by setting before me some present delight. Let not, O my God, let not flesh and blood prevail over me, let not the world and its short glory deceive me, let not the devil and his craftiness supplant me. Give me courage to resist, patience to endure, constancy to preserve. Grant, in place of all consolations of the world, the most sweet unction of Thy Spirit, and in place of carnal love, pour into me the love of Thy Name (à Kempis 2006, 91).

This passage from Thomas Hæmmerlien’s work The Imitation of Christ illustrates the core philosophical concentration of the text: A life that seeks to become like Christ in word, thought and deed must yearn for divine grace and reject worldly enticements. Hæmmerlien, also know as Thomas à Kempis, elected to live his life in obscurity and absorb himself in the spiritual pursuit of oneness with Christ. His compilation of personal thoughts into The Imitation of Christ has served Christianity as a centerpiece of devotional literature for over a half-century. The practices of Christian piety, spiritual discipline and Christian education have all been influenced by Thomas à Kempis’ (Adam 2001) (Matual 1994) (Peers 1969) (Knight 1998) (Mckenna 1995) (Meninger 1998) spiritual journey.
Historical Context

Thomas Hæmmerlien was born in the Rhineland town of Kempen near Düsseldorf in Germany in approximately 1380AD (Friese n.d.). During this time society was in a general state of upheaval and discord. The Hundred Year’s War, the plague, famine, the rise of secularism, and ecclesiastical taxation all yielded perceptions of a bleak and unpromising future. This also gave rise to mystical and monastic forms of Christianity. Those who sought the religious life often drew away from society so that they could live in the relative peace of communes with other like-minded individuals. The Imitation of Christ was a product of Thomas à Kempis’ spiritual journey in this historical context.

Life as a child was not spent in poverty, yet was very modest for à Kempis. His parents lived a modest life tending to their two children, working the fields and practicing a religious lifestyle. His father, John, was of the artisan class and a craftsman by trade. His mother, Gertrude, may have been a teacher and is mentioned in à Kempis’ writings “for her distinguished piety and for the influence she exercised over her son Thomas in early implanting in his mind the love of holy things” (Kettlewell 1885, 29).
“The seeds of piety began to show themselves in à Kempis very early, and were noticed by his parents and relations with no little interest. We are told that his mother was ‘greatly affected with it, and made it her whole endeavor to encourage him betimes a contempt of the pomps and vanities of the world, and to inspire him at the same time, day by day, with affections for heaven; and in pursuit thereof, for the humble holy life of our blessed Lord, till the little sparks of his tender soul were by means blown into a flame which failed not afterwards to manifest itself as he grew up in various ways, to edifying of all such as conversed with him’” (30).

Thomas had an older brother, John, who had left home for Deventer, Holland, in order to join the community of the Devout Clerics of the Common Life. John was several years older than Thomas and eventually became the Superior at the Congregation of Canons Regular at the monastery on Mount Saint Agnes. Thomas left home when he was thirteen years old, meeting his brother in Deventer because “he wanted to enter the community of the Devout Clerics of the Common Life” (Society of Saint Pius X 2002). This society, also know as the Order of the Brethren of the Common Life, was a natural home for one who had been reared in the simplistic habits of his devout parents.

Order of the Brethren of the Common Life
The Order of the Brethren of the Common Life was a product of the conversion of Gerard Groote. The son of wealthy parents, Groote was raised in Deventer but left at fifteen to study medicine, theology, and cannon law at the Sorbonne in Paris. Outgoing and lively, he decided to focus on the religious life given that it offered opportunities to acquire land and riches. Henry Æger, the Prior of the Carthusian Monastery, in Utrecht, Holland was a friend and fellow student at the Sorbonne. Æger confronted Groote about the vanity of life and his desire for temporal pleasures. Groote immediately emptied himself of worldly possessions and diligently pursued the devout life (Schrantz 1910). He dedicated his home in Deventer to educate and train young men for Christian service. He taught them how to copy manuscripts in order to earn wages for themselves and the commune. They began regular rituals of copying manuscripts, praying and studying the scriptures. “Their undogmatic form of piety became known as the devotio moderna” (Zelyck 2005, 77). Later, they became known as the “Brothers of the Common Life.”

Before Groote died of the plague in 1384, he appointed Florentius Radewyn as his successor at the monastery in Deventer. When Thomas arrived shortly after Groote’s death, Radewyn taught him in the monastery for seven years. Thomas involved himself in copying the writings of the early church fathers, liturgies for community use and in copying the Holy Scriptures. After finishing his tutelage under Radewyn at Deventer, he left for the monastery on Mount Saint Agnes where his older brother now served.

Naturally inclined to a quiet, contemplative, and interior life, and having from childhood been inured to the hardier virtues of the Christian life, he heartily entered upon the self-denying, unobtrusive, and godly course of living which they pursued; and with all fresh fervour [sic] of a young disciple he sought to advance in the grace and devotion for which they [the Brothers of the Common Life] were esteemed (Kettlewell 1885).

“His brother John, the Superior, was happy to have his young brother there. He explained, ‘I will try and examine you with regard to your studies, your health, and your behaviour [sic], to see whether you are able to live this type of life’” (Society of Saint Pius X 2002).
When he was thirty-four years old, Thomas was consecrated and ordained a priest. He was soon elected Sub prior of his community and was responsible to teach and train the young novices at the monastery. The day he was consecrated a priest was always held in high esteem.

With more than ordinary devotion did he observe it [the day of his consecration], since on these anniversaries he ‘renewed the dedication of himself by an earnest and joyful confirmation of his most solemn vow to follow Christ steadfastly till death, and endeavored by his manner to express his utter contempt of the world, and his thankfulness also, by praises for so special a grace bestowed upon him, glorifying God in the deepest acknowledgement of his own demerits and of the Divine goodness’ (Kettlewell 1885, 206).

His contemporaries in the monastery said of him:

Thomas gave all his attention to God in church, and when he carried out other religious ceremonies. While he chanted the Psalms, his eyes were ever raised towards Heaven, and he appeared to be filled with Divine energy. As he prayed and meditated, only the tips of his toes touched the floor; the rest of his body lifted towards heaven. He was always the first to enter the choir and always the last one to leave, because he had very great love for Divine worship, and all the services of the church (Society of Saint Pius X 2002).

It was near the time that Thomas à Kempis was consecrated a priest, around 1414, that he began writing the Imitation of Christ. The complete work has a total of four books, three of which were complete and deposited for safe keeping and copying at the “Mother House at Windesheim” in 1425 (De Montmorency 1906, 93). There is some discussion as to if à Kempis actually wrote the Imitation or compiled it from existing works in the monastery. Most modern scholars agree however, that à Kempis is the likely author (Placher 2005, 196). A discovery in 1873 confirmed that the Imitation of Christ exhibited a “peculiar” rhythmic form that was unique to other known writings of Thomas à Kempis, this essentially put to rest any alternative claims to authorship (De Montmorency 1906, 139).

The Imitation of Christ
à Kempis wrote The Imitation of Christ in a time when the world was in political and spiritual transition. He followed the Christian mystic’s perception that ones entire existence was to be immersed in the quiet, religious life. His time spent in prayer, Bible reading and worship gave birth to his magnum opus. The Imitation is a “marvellous [sic] mosaic, largely compiled from the actual text of the Bible. There are more than one thousand direct references to the Bible…” in the four books which comprise the total manuscript (174). “The Imitation was a new work, a book born into immortality, and yet it contains hardly an invented phrase…no phrase that time had not proved to be a living force in the instinctive spiritual life of man was allowed any place in it” (171). The collection of thoughts and scriptures that became The Imitation of Christ, while originally a text for the cloisters, has found a listening audience in each generation.

The four-book or libelli structure of the Imitation builds to a crescendo where à Kempis articulates the joy of union with Christ. The first book discusses the “tension” between the kingdom of light and the kingdom of darkness (Huls 2006, 66). It elevates the monastic life and indicates that it is one of the few sources of true spiritual light in the world. “It is no hard thing to despise human comfort when divine is present. It is a great thing, yea very great, to be able to bear the loss both of human and divine comfort; and for the love of God willingly to bear exile of heart, and in nought to seek oneself, not to look to one’s own heart” (à Kempis 2006, 53). The second portion of the text explains the tension between God and the human creation. It further explains “through repentance, one opens interiorly to receive God” (Huls 2006, 66).

The third and fourth books of the text are about the sacred act of the Eucharist and personal communion with the Lord respectively. Many translations of The Imitation of Christ reverse these two chapters, “Rudolf van Dijk…has shown that this was not the original order and that the sections were probably later changed around as a result of the greater emphasis that came to be placed on Holy Communion” (66). While more contemporary scholars place importance on the act of Holy Communion, à Kempis placed significant weight on one’s daily communion with, and conformity to Jesus Christ. “O Lord Jesus, forasmuch as Thy life was straitened [sic] and despised by the world, grant unto me to imitate Thee in despising the world, for the servant is not greater than his lord, not the disciple above his master” (à Kempis 2006).

Thomas à Kempis’ Death
Thomas à Kempis died at the age of ninety-two on July 25, 1471 and was buried in the eastern cloister of the monastery on Mount Saint Agnes. In 1672 his remains were moved to Saint Joseph’s Church in the Netherlands and later moved again to Saint Michael church. Maximilian Hendrik, Bishop of Cologne began the process of beatification of Thomas but the process ended when the Bishop died in 1688. There is continued speculation as to why the process never continued. When Thomas’ body was examined during the beatification process, scratch marks were noted on the interior of the coffin and splinters were found under his fingernails indicating he may have been accidentally buried alive—an occurrence that would not have been unheard of in his day(Wilkins 1996). The Catholic Church deems those who have fought death and possibly died in despair ineligible for sainthood.

Philosophical and Educational Presuppositions
Thomas à Kempis’ theoretical conjectures are a result of seven-years under the tutelage of Radewyn at Deventer and then spending the rest of his life at Mount Saint Agnes monastery. In time he held a strong belief that the ultimate metaphysical realities are submission to Christ and humility of heart. In essence, The Imitation of Christ, is based on à Kempis’ firm conviction that secular wisdom profits little and the devotional life yields rich dividends. He articulates the nature of humankind as one of low-estate and emphasizes that the disciple can only attain true value when he realizes his unworthiness and humble position before God. The Imitation of Christ communicates three basic philosophical presuppositions that relate to Christian education (1) the nature of humanity, (2) the nature of discipleship, and (3) the nature of sanctification.

The Nature of Humanity
à Kempis’ epistemological framework is centered in his belief that the devotional life is a mechanism to transform one more closely into the image of Christ thereby creating a living communion with the Divine. The monastic life was a source of strength for à Kempis and The Imitation of Christ was a product of his belief that to truly find communion with Christ, one must live separate from the world. It could be argued that à Kempis held a poor view of the nature of humanity and the world. He indicates, “Truly to know and despise self is the best and most perfect counsel” (à Kempis 2006, 16). Later he states that it is only those who, “consider themselves the most wicked of all people, and judge themselves to be the most unworthy, who are the most fit to receive the greater blessings” (87). Huls argues however, “Thomas does not speak of contempt for the world but rather of contempt for the vanities of the World” (Huls 2006, 69). He continues that the “vanities of the world” pertain to “our longing for security in visible and objectifiable reality. Instead of pursuing a relationship with the One who calls us from beyond to our divine reality, we make ourselves dependent on people or things who may offer us more security, but who are an illusion in light of our calling” (69).

While à Kempis’ ultimate belief is that humanity exists to glorify God, he also believes that the grace of God is cut-off to those who continually seek the pleasures of this world. “Be ofttimes [sic] mindful of the saying ‘the eye is not satisfied with seeing, nor the ear with hearing.’ Strive therefore, to turn away thy heart from the love of the things that are seen, and to set it upon the things that are not seen, for they who follow after their own fleshly lusts, defile the conscience, and destroy the grace of God” (15). The remedy for self-indulgence is what à Kempis believes is the most fundamental principle of human existence:
If thou wilt know and learn anything with profit, love to be thyself unknown and to be counted for nothing. That is the highest and most profitable lesson, when a man truly knoweth and judgeth lowly of himself. To account nothing of one’s self, and to think always kindly and highly of others, this is the great and perfect wisdom. Even shouldest thou see thy neighbor sin openly and grievously, yet thou oughtest not to reckon thyself better than he, for thou knowest not how long thou shalt keep thine integrity. All of us are weak and frail; hold thou no man more frail than thyself (à Kempis 2006, 16).

For him, human existence is a study in humility. One must seek to live life in a way that values all other things above one’s own existence.
The Imitation of Christ was ultimately written to instruct monks and nuns in the habits of the devotional life. In doing so, it gives insight into à Kempis’ view of human knowledge and existence. “There is naturally in every man a desire to know, but what profiteth knowledge without the fear of God? Better of a surety is a lowly peasant who serveth God, than a proud philosopher who watcheth the stars and neglecteth the knowledge of himself. He who knoweth himself well is vile in his own sight” (16). For à Kempis, this self-knowledge can only come through knowing the truth of Christ. Everything else that a person could learn is worthless, but Truth imparts eternal wisdom. Teachers and philosophers only impart wisdom that accomplishes gain for the world instead of the Kingdom of our Lord. “Happy is the man whom Truth itself doth teach, not by figures and transient words, but as it is in itself” (17).

The Imitation of Christ articulates a notion of human existence whereby man dwells in a pitiful state until he is awakened through thoughtful, willful contemplation of Jesus Christ. à Kempis does not see human existence as having impact apart from the devotional life. This is why he experienced great joy during his time at Mount Saint Agnes monastery. Daily he would take his “little book to his little nook” and in solitude allow himself to pursue spirit communion with the Lord (De Montmorency 1906, 101). “As life passed by he became more and more rapt in the mystic vision: ‘His cell was made to him a Paradise, the Church or choir a Heaven; while the Word of God was his food, and the bread of angels his hidden manna to feed upon’” (101). In the writings and life of à Kempis there are few hints that would elude a life of human interaction. Rather, his works testify to his life’s pursuit of personal devotion to Christ.

The Nature of Discipleship
à Kempis almost seems to have contempt for the learned of his age and scholarly discipleship. Throughout each book he extols the virtues of the quiet, devotional life and excoriates those who seek wisdom in the traditional teacher–apprentice models of his day. “Tell me, where now are all those masters and teachers, whom thou knowest well, whilst they were yet with you, and flourished in learning? Their stalls are now filled by others…” (à Kempis 2006, 18). Later he says, “How many perish through empty learning in this world, who care for little God” (18). He was trying to combat the common notion that through education one can become expert in the scriptures without ever experiencing true communion with God’s Spirit. For a’ Kempis, God as the sole teacher and humanity his pupil.

The Imitation brings an understanding that education is not found in rote memorization of doctrines, laws and rules. Rather, it is found in the Spirit that speaks through these mechanisms. The scriptures are not a means to mental knowledge; they are a method that brings us into contact with God. “Thus the Christian tradition is familiar with the lectio divina and the early monks spoke of ruminating (ruminare) on the Holy Scriptures. Only by repeated tasting will one taste the sweetness of God…” (Huls 2006, 71). According to Huls, the lectio divina is a “specific tradition of reading in which the accent is not so much on coming to know about the life of Jesus, but rather, as reader, on reaching the layer of one’s deepest longings or calling” (71). à Kempis’ desire was to overcome the common notion that knowledge of the scriptures yielded communion with God. He felt that one could read and understand the Bible and never truly submit to its teachings. Only through imitating Christ in our daily life rather than just learning about Him, could one’s spirit be freed from selfish habits to commune with the Lord.

There are critiques on à Kempis’ view of discipleship. Zelyck feels that à Kempis “loses sight of the goal of self-denial. Instead of a fundamental reorientation of one’s desires and identity with Christ’s sufferings, the object of self-denial has become ‘perfect (self) mortification’ (III 31: 3)” (Zelyck 2005, 81). For Zelyck, this is something that can only be accomplished inside the protected walls of a monastery. He goes on to say that “the motivation behind self-denial is to acquire the love of God. Disciples are to, ‘subject themselves wholeheartedly for the love of God’ because ‘the further you withdraw from human consolation, the nearer you come to God’” (82). Indeed, understanding à Kempis’ audience, this may rightly be true.

The Nature of Sanctification
Throughout The Imitation of Christ à Kempis expresses his thoughts on the philosophical nature of sanctification. This has impact for constructing his educational framework since his ultimate belief is that human nature cannot be reformed apart from contemplative devotion to Christ. “In order to attach ourselves, like Christ, to the loving spirit of God, it is necessary to detach ourselves from all the attachments that bind us to the material reality” (Huls 2006, 80). à Kempis’ life was a study in this regard. His devotion to the “little book in the little nook” was a practice in severing any ties to the material world. “Detachment plays an important role in Christian tradition. Ascetic practices are designed to break our focus on the sensual and material. But often this ascesis becomes an end in itself and we forget that it is an exercise to help us concentrate on what is really real” (80).

Zelyck sees this view as a forerunner to Wesley’s notions of Christian perfection. Wesley indicates that Christian perfection is not “the inability to sin, rather [it is] the ability not to sin,” to be “inwardly and outwardly devoted to God” (Wesley 1767). Zelyck goes on to argue that “à Kempis believes perfection can be obtained through a nebulous, subjective, mystical experience” (Zelyck 2005, 83). He further states, “This view is evident when he [à Kempis] says, ‘we become perfect through uprooting one vice each year’ and we are to, ‘strive earnestly for perfection for in a short time [we] will receive the reward of [our] labor’” (84). à Kempis does seem to view perfection as a goal of the Christian life, yet he stops short of indicating sinless perfection is possible in this life. His aim is to articulate a process whereby the worldly lusts and enticements are perpetually less of an ensnarement as one grows in the discipleship process.

Huls indicates that à Kempis rightly argues that sanctification can be compared to the “spiritual way” (Huls 2006, 81). The spiritual way “can best be defined as growth towards simplicity or that which is essential—it is to surrender to the realisation [sic] that we are unconditionally loved by God” (81). This seems to be a better evaluation of à Kempis’ viewpoint. The ascetic life was a means to imitate the life of Christ. The Imitation of Christ was written as a devotional for those who were called to pursue the monastic life, not necessarily for those outside the monastery walls. Zelyck’s blanket application to all follower’s of Christ may not be appropriate. Huls seems to have the more moderate view that à Kempis was simply applying the scriptures to the context to which he had been called.

Further Educational Concepts
à Kempis did not articulate a conceptual framework of formal clerical education. He was concerned however, with the state of formal discipleship. He felt theologians of his day had lost sight of the most important goal of the Christian life—communion with Christ. This may be why two of the four books of The Imitation of Christ are written to address spiritual communion with the Lord and the physical act of the Eucharist. à Kempis felt both had been neglected in the religious mainstream:
Jesus hath many lovers of His heavenly kingdom, but few bearers of His Cross. He hath many seekers of comfort, but few of tribulation. He findeth many companions of His table, but few of His fasting. All desire to rejoice with Him, few are willing to undergo anything for His sake. Many follow Jesus that they may eat of His loaves, but few that they may drink of the cup of His passion. Many are astonished at His Miracles, few follow after the shame of His Cross. Many love Jesus so long as no adversities happen to them. Many praise Him and bless Him, so long as they receive any comforts from Him. But if Jesus hide Himself and withdraw from them a little while, they fall either into complaining or into too great dejection of mind. But they who love Jesus for Jesus’ sake, and not for any consolation of their own, bless Him in all tribulation and anguish of heart as in the highest consolation. And if He should never give them consolation, nevertheless they would always praise Him and always give Him thanks. Oh what power hath the pure love of Jesus, unmixed with any gain or love of self! (à Kempis 2006, 56).

The Brothers of the Common Life practiced a tradition wherein the teacher was more a guide than guru. This was partly to help overcome the pride and status that often accompanied the professional teachers of the fifteenth century. When à Kempis first studied under Florentius Radewyn at Deventer, he was taught through his relationship with Christ. Radewyn did not serve in a didactic capacity; rather he provided the raw materials for à Kempis to fully seek Christ. à Kempis followed this pattern throughout his life at Mount Saint Agnes. Novices, which were young men entering the monastery, learned by quietly watching others and purposefully seeking Christ. “By putting on Christ and submitting ourselves to his words, we are drawn out of the darkness and into the light” (Huls 2006, 70). There was no curriculum for learning except the scriptures and the pattern of monastic life. The teacher-student relationship existed in solitude and stillness and Christ is the mediator (70). The monastic’s felt it was only in this context that spiritual learning took place. They felt, “we must see Christ not simply as the one who orders the outer structure of our life (skopos), but as the one who desires to bring us to the immediate life in which we live out of God (telos)” (70).

The nature of humanity, the nature of discipleship, and the nature of sanctification formed à Kempis’ epistemological paradigm. These three concepts, as part of the devotional life formed an educational structure that would lead one into deeper communion with Christ. à Kempis clearly sees this as the highest good in life. While the challenges of societal life are what most likely drove him to the cloisters, it was his time in the cloisters that produced such an enduring devotional classic. For à Kempis, living life in solitude devoted to the Lord was an essential element of his personal calling. The Imitation of Christ, while essentially a guidebook for medieval monastic life greets the modern reader with timeless relevance.

Modern Application
Thomas à Kempis’ contribution to modern devotional life is vast. The pattern of the “little book in the little nook” has maintained significant popularity until the present day. The Imitation of Christ, being the second most widely read text in Christian literature, has influenced generations. The consistent call to greater devotion to Christ is needed in the modern Christian marketplace. Not unlike the days of Thomas à Kempis, modern society is in turmoil. Religious formalism is often held in contempt in secular society. Emergent, Emerging and Missional notions of church and spirituality are cries for relevance in post-modern society. While these movements face their own challenges, à Kempis provides a paradigm for the seeker of deeper spiritual union with Christ.

The Imitation of Christ is not without its pitfalls for the contemporary reader. Protestants will find some of the pre-reformational theology difficult to overlook. à Kempis affirms the veneration of saints, and book four easily lays the groundwork for an articulated view of transubstantiation. However, understanding the context and christocentric goals of the text allows a more congenial reading. Modern devotional literature often leaves the reader feeling Christianity is a four or five step program to a better life. à Kempis artfully dwells on the Christian life as a means of refinement, purgation, and ever-striving.

Conclusion
The Imitation of Christ provides a simplistic yet thorough path to greater union with Christ. à Kempis’ intent was not to create a Hegelian path to mystical spirituality, rather he borrowed from the scriptures and Church Fathers lessons that please the Lord. His purposeful intent provided a framework for the novices at Mount Saint Agnes and has been passed to our generation for those who desire solace from worldly turmoil. The Imitation has contributed to Christian philosophy and education through elevating the heart for Christ above mere knowledge. The final passage of Thomas à Kempis’ devotional classic leaves the reader with a clear understanding of why Christ is the ultimate goal of the faithful. “God who is eternal and incomprehensible, and of infinite power, doth great and inscrutable things in heaven and in earth, and His wonderful works are past finding out. If the works of God were of such sort that they might easily be comprehended by human reason, they should no longer be called wonderful or unspeakable (à Kempis 2006, 160).